Τhe peninsula of Athos. better known as
the peninsula of Agion Oros, is the easternmost of the three peninsulas
of Halkidiki. It differs from the other two, not only in its geography,
but also in its geology, morphology, climate and history. All this is
clearly reflected in the vegetation of the area. In reference to
geological factors, the peninsula of Kassandra is made up mainly of
tertiary formations (sedimental formations, marls). The peninsula of
Sithonia is also mainly made up of tertiary formations, but they are
mostly gneisses and granite. On the peninsula of Athos we see the
extension of the geological formations of the range of Mount Rhodopi,
with a continuation of the crystalline schist formations (gneisses, mica
schists, limestone and marble) and the igneous rocks (granite,
granodiorites, serpentines).
The peninsula of Athos also differs
morphologically from the other two peninsulas. We see these differences
in its steep slopes and precipices along the length of the coastline, in
its deeply creased terrain, and in the appearance of Mount Athos, which
rises like a pyramid and surpasses 2000 meters (2003 m) in height. The
name of the peninsula comes from the mountain. It was the steep cliffs
in combination with the rocky shores and the sea currents at the
southern end of the peninsula which motivated Xerxes to build the canal
which bears his name. This forbidding terrain was probably the reason
for the limited colonization throughout antiquity, but it also made the
Athos peninsula an attractive site for the foundation of a monastic
civilization. The geographic isolation of the area contributed to the
preservation of ancient species of flora and fauna and led to the
emergence of 37 endemic species.
The Athos peninsula differs climatically
from the other two peninsulas of Halkidiki, which both sustain the
typical, Mediterranean climate. The climate of the peninsula of Athos is
influenced by having a higher elevation above sea level and also by the
north easterly winds which are prevalent in the region and by the
ascending and descending air currents created by the emergence of Mount
Athos. Therefore, in the Athos peninsula we see a pure Mediterranean
climate only in the north and along the length of the coastline where
the coastal elevation varies from 150-500 (800) m above sea level,
depending on the site, the slope and the kind of rock present. There is a
dominance of Aleppo pine and evergreen, broadleaved trees in the
region.
The inner regions maintain a
transitional climate ranging from the Mediterranean climate to the
Continental climate with mainly deciduous, broadleaved trees (oak,
chestnut, beech) and the mountain, Mediterranean coniferous trees (fir
and black pine). In the highest parts of Athos, above 1600 m
approximately, a pure Continental climate exists accompanied by the
appearance of alpine vegetation. As a result of the wide variety of
geological and rock formations, the many faceted topography and the
variation of climate types, a great biodiversity appears on the
peninsula of Athos at all levels. An indication of this diversity is the
large number of species of flora and fauna (over 1200 species of plants
and 350 species of mushrooms).
The vegetation includes about 50 types
of plant communities. The types of vegetation and the landscapes which
they create form a unique mosaic of varieties, which one rarely meets in
such a small area as the 30.000 ha of Mount Athos. The history differs
greatly from the remainder of Halkidiki. While throughout antiquity the
other two peninsulas of Halkidiki, Kassandra and Sithonia, had become
colonized very early and developed important cities, many of which had
been built by the Athenians, the peninsula of Athos, due to its
isolation, seems to have been sparsely populated.
Because of the calm seas which surround
them and the existence of natural harbors, the forests of Kassandra and
Sithonia were used to supply wood which was suitable for ships and
construction as well as metals and mining products for the markets of
Athens and later, to the countries of the Macedonians. As a result, many
of the species which existed in ancient times were depleted and even
lost.
To the contrary, the forests of the
Athos area seem to have remained almost unchanged, retaining their
ancient characteristics as pertaining to the mixture of species. This
continues to the present day in some remote spots.
The monastic life, which also created
favorable conditions for the development of the natural environment,
appeared early on the peninsula of Athos, which was later known as the
peninsula of Mount Athos. This monastic trend was sporadic until the
middle of the 10th century AD. In the middle of the 10th century (963),
the building of the Great Lavra Monastery was begun, followed by the
systematic development of monastic life which was completed in the
middle of the 15th century. A total of 20 autonomous, ‘Holy Monasteries’
make up the community of Mount Athos. This community, with its rich
history of more than 1000 years, has had its periods of prosperity and
decline. Though it suffered as a result of many different invaders, its
holy, monastic spirit remained intact. In the periods of prosperity the
number of monks exceeded 20,000. If one also considers all of the lay
people who worked at such occupations as laborers, loggers and builders,
then we see that Athos was teeming with life. This fact had effects on
the natural environment, and especially in the areas immediately
surrounding the monasteries.
A large part of the timber which was
needed for building and repairs came from the forest of Athos. Wood from
the oak and the chestnut forests was especially in demand, but wood
from fir and black pine was also used. Even with the crude methods of
logging which were carried out in those days and the limited means of
transport, irreparable damage was not done to the varieties of plant
species.
We need to take into consideration the
great ability that the natural ecosystem has for regeneration. The
ecosystems of evergreen, broadleaved trees in the area where most of the
monasteries, kellia and sketae (houses) were built did suffer some
important effects due to the collection of firewood to cover energy
needs. Even today, the main energy source of many monasteries, sketae
and kellia is firewood and charcoal. This is the reason that the
evergreen, broadleaved trees are suffering to a greater or lesser extent
around almost all of the monasteries. Aside from the need for the space
for buildings and work areas, the monasteries needed space for
agriculture in order to produce food for the monks and visitors.
The main agricultural activities of the
monks were the planting of vegetable gardens, olive groves, vineyards
and fruit trees. In order to provide the necessities to live, some of
the forested land had to be cleared. This cleared land did not exceed
5-10 % of the total land of the peninsula, which is approximately 30,000
ha (300 km2). Thus, the ecosystem and the landscape did not remain
completely untouched. The need for wood to cover requirements for
building and firewood affected the structure and makeup of the
ecosystem. Because all of the tree species which make up the ecosystem
of Mount Athos, except for the conifers, are generally able to sprout
and regenerate easily, and because of the fact that there is an absence
of grazing, domestic animals (particularly goats), reparations to the
ecosystem occur in a relatively short time. This is the reason that the
landscape has remained relatively unchanged over many years. The
ecosystem is able to take over and repair itself even after forest fires
because of the ability of the coniferous trees, especially black pine,
to regenerate after fires, and due to the ability of the broadleaved
trees to coppice.
From the middle to the end of the 19th
century, a new period for the forest ecosystems of the peninsula began.
The mining needs of Halkidiki and the increased use of chestnut wood in
agriculture led to the beginning of systematic management of the use of
the forests which had become a significant source of income for many of
the monasteries. The enforced method of clear cutting with the expulsion
of fir and other species resulted in a reduction of the tall, mixed
seed forests in the middle zone and the creation of a low chestnut
forest. This is because that coppices of chestnut grow very quickly in
comparison with the other tree species, and are also more tolerant of
shade. What was once the thick, lavish, mixed forest of ancient and
towering trees with their huge trunks, which Griesebach (1839)
described, was transformed into an almost uniform coppice of dense
chestnut.
Summarizing, we wish to emphasize that
the great variety of geological and rock formations, the deeply wrinkled
terrain, the high elevation above sea level of Mount Athos, in
combination with the great variety of climate types, the isolation of
the area and the lack of grazing animals from nomadic herds, has created
a mosaic of vast types of vegetation from the pure Mediterranean to the
alpine. They are characterized by admirable vitality and density and
great biodiversity of flora and fauna. The landscape created by the
combinations of vegetation and terrain is of rare beauty and variety. It
is unique. It ranges from the ‘tame’ coastal zones to the ‘wild’
landscapes of the gorge, the stony ground and the towering rocks. All of
this is encompassed by the phrase, ‘the magic of Mount Athos’, and it
must be preserved in its natural state. The natural environment of Mount
Athos constitutes an unbroken link in all of its cultural heritage.
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